Troy †Evidence of Homer Free Essays

The role that Homer played in our understanding of the Trojan War by his writing the Iliad has been one of great significance. The turn of the 8th Century saw the writing of the Iliad from the Ancient Greek writer, Homer, which was roughly 3,000 years ago. Heinrich Schliemann, a wealthy German business, dedicated his energy and considerable fortune to discovering the Troy Homer describes in the Iliad. We will write a custom essay sample on Troy – Evidence of Homer or any similar topic only for you Order Now By using the writings, Schliemann was able to locate the site of the Ancient city of Troy. Manfred Korfmann, a German archaeologist, interested in the city of Troy itself, set out to find out the truth about Troy through science, rather than using the Iliad as a guide, but when researching and discovering historic events in Troy, numerous finds matched up to Homer’s writings. Armed conflicts in 1200 B. C, around the same time as the Bronze Age, further highlights the impression that the Trojan War did in fact happen, just as Homer had stated in the Iliad. In the time when Homer’s Iliad stated the Trojan War took place, and when conflicts were apparent, the Greek â€Å"Mycenaean’s†, believed to have been involved in the Trojan War, were at the height of power and were known to be warriors. This can help prove the violent aspects and conflicts that were written in the Iliad. The Hittie Empire was that of superflous power, and over the great technology and riches they had, meant that the written tablets they had left behind were of vital importance. Much like what Homer had written throughout the Iliad, the tablets contained clues to a great battle fought over an Ancient city named Wulisa, the same exact name Homer had called the ancient city of Troy in the Iliad. Homer’s Iliad therefore shaped our understanding of the events that led to the Trojan War, and those that took place during it. Our understanding of the Trojan War has been shaped Homer and the Iliad. Heinrich Schliemann arguably is one of the most famous archaeologists when reffering to the discovery of Troy. Infatuated with the idea of finding the lost city of Troy, Schliemann used all of his money, time and will power to find it. Studying the Iliad tirelessly, Schliemann discovered what he believed to be the location of Troy, and began excavating in search for the stories held within the walls. Using his own copy of Homer’s Iliad, examining the geographic clues that the writings contained, Schliemann located what is believed to be the location of the ancient city. Despite the believed location being found by Schliemann using Homer’s Iliad, German archeolgist Manfred Korfmann was interested in he science of the ancient city, rather than the written work of Homer. But, excavating the side and relocating the search to a much broader area, not even Manfred Korfmann could argue with the descriptions that Homer wrote in the Iliad, and how closely related they were to the large uncovered city. As Korfmann’s team began the tireless venture to look for clues, they found thin gs that result to the belief of violence. Arrow heads were found on the lower levels of Troy, for close combat fighting, which links to Homer’s recount of the Greek Myceanians taking down Troy from the inside. Korfmann, whilst continuing the hunt for clues, found that a catastrophe had taken place within the great walls of the ancient city, the catastrophe being a large fire, enough to burn down the city. In the Iliad, Homer states that after the city was unrun by the Greek Myceanians, they burnt the town to the ground. A corpse of a girl, around the age of 16 or 17, was found in the middle of the city. Foul play was noted, due to her feet being burned by fire, as well as half her body buried in an open space. This was unusual for the time of such spiritual believers in the afterlife, that results in the belief of a quick fast burial. The fast burial could have been because of the overruling of the city, at the hands of the Greek Myceanians, just as Homer had written it in the Iliad. Manfred Korfmann believes that Troy was a city that was seiged, defended but most of all defeated in the war. The findings pointed to a great battle, which saw the falling of Troy, at the end of the late bronze age, just as Homer’s legend in the Iliad had said. Although Manfred Korfmann stated that his belief in the Iliad was not reason enough to excavate the city as Schliemann had done, the remarkable similarties between the descriptions Homer had written in the Iliad of what took place, was far too coincidental to not take notice. Homer’s Iliad has stated that the Trojan war was an armed conflict, one of the greatest conflicts of all time. Our knowledge and understanding of the Trojan War therefore has been shaped and influenced greatly by Homer and the Iliad. 200 B. C. , also known as the Bronze Age, was a time believed that armed conflicts were taking place. All evidence shows us that a heated conflict was raging where we now know lies Greece and the area that was called ‘Wilios’, which Homer states as the city in which the Trojan war took place. Homer wrote, â€Å"A multitude of rulers is not a good thing. Let there be one ruler, one king. † This quotation directly from the Iliad helps with our understanding of what the Greek Mycenaean’s were all about. They were known for their greed, thirst for power and riches due to farmland and copious amounts of food supplies. The sophistication of the way Greeks lived was of high upkeep and strong reliance on natural resources. The Iliad states that the Greek Mycenaean’s were the most powerful army of the late Bronze Age, mainly because of their hunger and maliciousness in regards to attaining power. It is believed that during this time, the Mycenaean’s were on the hunt for Bronze and Gold to expand their land. At the time, the ancient city of Troy was rich in Bronze. This could’ve have, knowing that the Greek Mycenaean’s were known warriors and very powerful, been reason enough for the Trojan war to take place. Manfred Korfmann, the German archaeologist who excavated Troy, believes that Ancient Troy was an important trading route within the trading routes around the world. He states, â€Å"Everything that was taken between Europe to Asia should have passed through here. † Homer wrote that the Greek Mycenaean’s were powerful, but also greedy, in a way that the abundance of riches that Troy had could’ve been appealing enough to the great Kings of Greece, appealing enough to start a war. Our understanding of the Trojan War has been greatly shaped by that of Homer in his writings of the Iliad and the key descriptions of the Greek Mycenaean’s, in which they were merciless warriors and very powerful. In the Iliad, Homer states that what we know to be named as Troy was actually named Wilios. When archaeologist found that the powerful Hittite empire had written artefacts that were of vital importance when pinpointing the exact location the Great War had taken place. Archaeologist examined the tablets, looking for any mention of Troy, which was then found to be named Wilusa, which in Ancient Greek was the same name used for Troy. Homer had written and used the Name Wilios in the Iliad, when referring to the Ancient city of Troy. The tablets found stated, â€Å"Mycenaean warriors had once fought at the gates of Wilusa. † Although even though the evidence matched up with that of Homer’s writings in the Iliad, archaeologists couldn’t be sure that Wulisa/Wilios was the exact same place of what we know now to be Troy. But the tablets held more vital information, including the description of a water tunnel in ‘Wulisa’, which was dated to be around 1000 years after the late Bronze Age. Using evidence from the tunnel, it was dated to be of use at the exact same time these tablets from the Hittite Empire were being written. By deciphering the tablets found and left behind by the great Hittite Empire, the clues and descriptions of what happened all those years ago directly linked with the same descriptions that Homer had used for Ancient Troy in the Iliad. Our understanding of what took place in relation to the Trojan War, as well as who was involved and why the war had begun in the first place, was greatly influenced by Homer and his writings of the Iliad. The discovery of the area in which Troy laid to rest, founded by Heinrich Schliemann who used the Iliad to find the city, as well as Manfred Korfmann who couldn’t ignore the similarities between what he found within the walls of what he believed to be Troy and what Homer had written in the Iliad are all substantial evidence of the influence Homer had on our understanding. These evidential points, as well as the knowledge of armed conflicts, the demeanor that the Greek Mycenaean’s possessed and the ancient tablet inscriptions left behind from another powerful ancient civilization further displays the influence that Homer had on our understanding of the Trojan War, through his writings in the Iliad. How to cite Troy – Evidence of Homer, Essay examples

Corruption society free essay sample

News writing Youve gathered the information, done the reporting. Youve interviewed all the people involved, the eye witnesses to the explosion, the police, etc, etc. And now you have to write the story. You have pages in your notebook of facts, observations, quotes. You may have some agency copy, some material from other media. The first thing to do is stop and think. Do not start writing until you have a plan. Read through all your notes, marking the most important pieces of information and the quotes you want to use. The information you have gathered will not have entered your notebook in order of importance. You need to decide what is more important, what is less important, to establish a hierarchy of pieces of information. And this is where you must think about your audience. Not necessarily what interests you most, but what will interest them. It may not be the same thing, and this is where knowing, having a feeling for, understanding your audience is so important. As you stare at the blank screen try to imagine the reader. It depends on the publication you are writing for, of course. You can assume more knowledge if you are writing for a specialist publication, or a specialist section of a newspaper. A cricket report or commentary can assume knowledge of the rules of cricket; an article for a motoring magazine can assume the reader knows what a supercar is. But some specialist publications set out to educate computer magazines are a good example and while interest can be assumed, knowledge of how to use specific pieces of software cannot. So understand the intentions of the publication you write for, or if you are a freelance you seek to sell to. The market sector in which the newspaper is located is also relevant to how you write. You will find longer sentences and paragraphs and sometimes longer words in the more serious newspapers selling relatively small numbers of copies than in mass-selling newspapers with circulations 10 times as big. The reader of the Guardian will tend to be better educated and to have a larger vocabulary than the reader of the Sun. But do not, as a writer, show off your extensive vocabulary. It is never better, wherever you are writing, to prefer the less familiar word wordy is always better than prolix. Nobody is impressed by the use of a word they do not understand or would not use in everyday speech. The danger of talking down to the audience assuming vocabulary as well as knowledge is that it insults readers, makes them feel inadequate.  And that turns them off and, worse, turns them away. They do not read on, and you have not communicated with them. The best writing for popular journalism is some of the best writing in journalism, and is hard to do. It is readily understandable, instantly readable and, if it is done well, makes you want to read on. Space is always the most precious commodity in a newspaper. Long words and sentences take up more space. Self-indulgent writing pleases nobody except perhaps the writer. Stephen King, who has sold more novels than most, reflected on his craft in On Writing, and drew a similar message: One of the really bad things you can do to your writing is to dress up the vocabulary, looking for long words because youre maybe a little bit ashamed of your short ones. This is like dressing up a household pet in evening clothes. The pet is embarrassed and the person who committed this act of premeditated cuteness should be even more embarrassed. So the overriding message in journalistic writing is: Keep It Simple. One of the greatest editors and journalists is Harold Evans, who has written one of the best books on journalistic writing, Essential English for Journalists, Editors and Writers. He summed it up thus: It is not enough to get the news. We must be able to put it across. Meaning must be unmistakable, and it must also be succinct. Readers have not the time and newspapers have not the space for elaborate reiteration. This imposes decisive requirements. In protecting the reader from incomprehension and boredom, the text editor has to insist on language which is specific, emphatic and concise. Every word must be understood by the ordinary reader, every sentence must be clear at one glance, and every story must say something about people. There must never be a doubt about its relevance to our daily life. There must be no abstractions. Below are a series of tips for keeping things simple and encouraging the reader to read it. They are addressed at news writing, but most apply to all forms of journalistic writing. The intro This is the start of the story, the opening paragraph. The traditional news introductory paragraph, still the dominant form, has two related purposes: to engage the reader instantly and to summarise what the story is all about. The structure is known as the inverted pyramid and dates back to the days of hot metal when words on their way on to paper passed through a stage of being slugs of lead. It was always easier and faster to cut a story from the  bottom, using a pair of tweezers. News stories always have to be cut because reporters write them too long, and the (imperfect) theory was that a well structured story could always be cut from the bottom so that in extremis (do not use see later) if the intro was the only paragraph left it still made sense. The good intro depends on your judgment and decisiveness. It declares why the story is being published, what is the newest, most interesting, most important, most significant, most attention-grabbing aspect of the story. It is not a summary of everything yet to come. The best intro will contain a maximum of two or three facts, maybe only one. In a popular tabloid it will consist of one sentence, probably no more than 25 words. The worst intro will be uncertain of what the story is all about and will contain several ideas. The best intro will demand that you read on. The worst will make it likely that you will move on. As Tony Harcup puts it in his Journalism, Principles and Practice: The intro is crucial because it sets the tone for what follows. A poorly written intro might confuse, mislead or simply bore the reader a well-written intro will encourage the reader to stay with you on the strength of the information and angle you have started with. Rest of the story Once youve got the intro right, the second paragraph will be the most important you write. And so on. Holding the readers interest does not stop until he or she has read to the end. You have already planned your structure, the hierarchy of information. After the intro you are amplifying the story, adding new, if subordinate, information, providing detail, explanation and quotes. And doing all this so that the story reads smoothly and seamlessly. News stories are about providing information, and there is nothing more frustrating for the reader that finishing a story with unanswered questions still hanging. Journalism students are taught about the five Ws: who, what, when, where and why. They are a useful tool to check you have covered all the bases, though not all will always apply. It is always difficult to detach yourself from your own prose when you read it through, but try. Try to put yourself in the place of the reader coming cold to the story, interested in it and asking the questions that will make it clear. Have you dealt with them? The subeditor, or text editor, will soon tell you if you havent. There is always a problem over how much knowledge to assume,  particularly with a running story of which todays is another episode. You cannot always start from the beginning for the benefit of reader recently arrived from Mars, but you can include sufficient to ensure it is not meaningless. It is a matter of judgement. Active not passive Always prefer the active tense in news writing, and particularly in intros. The active tense is faster and more immediate; it also uses fewer words. Arsenal were beaten by Manchester United last night is slower than Manchester United beat Arsenal , and if it is a London newspaper Arsenal lost to Manchester United is still preferable. Positive even if it is negative Not: The government has decided not to introduce the planned tax increase on petrol and diesel this autumn. But: The government has abandoned plans to raise fuel taxes this autumn. News is more engaging if it describes something that is happening, rather than something that is not. Quotes Long quotes bring a story grinding to a halt, particularly if they are from politicians, particularly local politicians, bureaucrats or bores. Short, incisive, direct quotes change the pace of a story, add colour and character, illustrate bald facts, and introduce personal experience. Journalists paraphrase speeches and reports to focus on the main points, and to make them shorter and more comprehensible. It is a vital skill, as is using indirect quotation. But a quote will add a different tone of voice, inject emotion or passion, answer the question what was it like?, how did you feel?, what are you going to do next?, what actually happened. Usually the reporter was not there and is gathering the information after the event. The direct quote provides actuality. And sometimes the quote has to be there to provide the precision, when the actual words used are crucial, and sometimes the story itself. Never use a word other than said when attributing a quote. Affirmed, opined, exclaimed, interjected, asserted, declared, are all tacky synonyms which do nothing to help the flow of the story. When people speak they say. On rare occasions it might be relevant to the story if they shout or scream; in which case break the rule. Officialese Language used in letters from bank managers, council officers, utilities and read from their notebooks by police officers giving evidence in court should always be avoided. People do not proceed; they walk. Police do not apprehend; they stop or arrest or detain. At this point in time is now. George Orwell, in his essay Politics and the English Language, converts a passage from Ecclesiastes and turns it into officialese to make the point. Original: I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, not the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. Orwells rewrite: Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into account. Adjectives Keith Waterhouse, the veteran Daily Mail and Daily Mirror columnist wrote an irresistible book on journalistic writing called Newspaper Style. It was in fact an adaptation of the Mirror style book he had been commissioned to write. In it he warns of the dangers of adjectives thus: Adjectives should not be allowed in newspapers unless they have something to say. An adjective should not raise questions in the readers mind, it should answer them. Angry informs. Tall invites the question, how tall? The well-worn phrase: his expensive tastes ran to fast cars simply whets the appetite for examples of the expensive tastes and the makes and engine capacity of the fast cars. This test should be applied to all adjectives used in journalistic writing. If they add relevantly to the information being provided, they can stay. If not, strike them. Too many writers believe adjectives add colour and style. Vague or general ones add nothing. Use specific words (red and blue), says Waterhouse, not general ones (brightly coloured). Jargon, abbreviations, acronyms and know-all foreign phrases All of us who work in organisations, professions, specific industries or bureaucracies are surrounded by jargon. We may regard it as shorthand to speed communication because we share the understanding of what it means, but, whether intentional or not, it is a protective shield that excludes those not in the know. That is the effect it  has when used in newspaper writing. Those in the know understand; the rest do not. Anything readers do not understand makes them feel left out rather than included and turns them against the story. They may well stop reading. Medical, scientific and economic terms are a case in point. Avoid them or explain them. Price/earnings ratios and capitalisation mean nothing to the general reader. It is the same with abbreviations and acronyms. Todays students have no idea what CBI stands for; they are more likely to know FoI. A few could expand Nato, fewer the TUC. Many of the terms, although still in use, are generational. They need to be spelt out or explained, or another reader is lost. Just as long words speak down to those with a smaller vocabulary and there is always a simpler, and less space consuming, alternative so well-used Latin expressions mean nothing to those who have not learned that language, apart from lawyers who have had to mug up. Pro bono, inter alia and in extremis have no place in newspapers, and usually mean the writer is showing off. Puns and cliches Headline writers love puns and phrases from 60s pop lyrics and editors frequently have to restrain their use. They sit even less easily in copy, where only readers over 55 can identify. Again, the danger is excluding readers. Worst of all is the extended metaphor or pun. Like this (real) one: Kingsbridge Silver Band has hit a high note with National Lottery chiefs to the tune of nearly  £52,000. Tired old instruments struck a chord with the lottery board, which has drummed up enough cash for a complete new set, giving the band plenty to trumpet about. Yes, really. Apostrophes The printed word has done more to save the apostrophe than the whole of the teaching profession. Given the pace of newspaper and magazine production it is extraordinary that so few errors in spelling or punctuation appear, a tribute to the subeditors who prepare copy for publication. From advertising (shockingly, sometimes intentionally) to the greengrocers board we are bombarded with mis- (and missing) punctuation, yet it is invariably correct in print, though seldom when it emerges from the home printer. If in doubt, and most people are, consult Lynne Truss (Eats, Shoots and Leaves). Often. Exercise: acronyms What do the following acronyms stand for? If you dont know instantly, then you can be sure there will be plenty of readers who dont. So do not use them without explanation. Defra, Asbo, OECD, SEO; CBI; ISA; Fifa; PCT; Sats; FTSE Answers: Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs; Anti-Social Behaviour Order; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; Search Engine Optimisation; Confederation of British Industry; Individual Savings Account; Fà ©dà ©ration Internationale de Football Association; Primary Care Trust; Standard Assessment Tests; Financial Times Stock Exchange (used to describe stock market indices such as FTSE 100). Exercise: plain English Rewrite the following two paragraphs in plain English suitable for publication in a newspaper or magazine. Remove unnecessary words, passive verbs, repetition, cliche, jargon and pompous or pretentious expression. Jot down some questions the story fails to answer. Joseph Foster and his sibling Kate were advancing cheerfully along Wesley Street when they were in minor collision with an HGV which unexpectedly mounted the pavement. It transpired later, when the multi-coloured Volvo truck driver who was transporting a container containing motor parts to Oxford was being interviewed by a local radio reporter, that the lorry veered to avoid a police car speeding towards him on the wrong side of the road. The spokesman at police headquarters told a different story. But it was the childrens lucky day as they escaped shocked but unscathed. A hospital spokesman at nearby Eddington hospital, run by the Barton NHS Foundation Trust, said the two children were lucky not to have been seriously injured. As it was, declared Andrew Brown, they were examined in A and E and allowed to go home. Unfortunately Kates buggy was beyond repair.'

Dan Marino Of The Miami Dolphins Has Had A Very Successful Career On A

Dan Marino of the Miami Dolphins has had a very successful career on and off of the foot ball field. Dan Marino has led a very interesting life throughout his existence on this planet. Whether it is playing football to appearing in commercials or movies to leading a normal everyday life with his family. Dan Marino has grown to being a role model foe millions and millions of children and adults to look up to. Dan Marino has had a very successful career that has had its ups and downs, but he still manages to be a good all around guy and more importantly a good sport. Dan Marino was born in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, and he lived with his parents and two younger sisters. Dan came from the same area as Joe Montana, Jim Kelly, and Joe Namath. As a child Dan and his friends were always playing either football or baseball. In both of the two sports, Dan's father had coached. He was the one who had taught Dan how to hold the ball next to his ear and throw without winding up. Dan's father played a huge role in his life, he taught Dan to try hard and have fun while playing whatever sport he chose. In elementary school Dan thought too much about becoming a professional athlete and not enough about his schoolwork. As a child Dan wanted to go to Central Catholic High School because it had great sports teams. But because eof Dan's poor performance in the classroom, he had been warned by a teacher that if he continued to produce bad grades that he would not be able to get into Central Catholic High School. So Dan's father sat him down and had a talk with him about the fact that if he didn't start doing well in school that he would have no choice but to take him off of all athletic activities. This little talk that Dan and his father had was more importantly a wake up call that had inspired to do better in school and stay on his sporting teams. When it became time for Dan to take the test to determine if he would get into Central Catholic High School, he was completely ready and passed the test barely but he still managed to get in which was a big accomplishment. While Dan was atten ding Central Catholic High School he managed to become outstanding scholastic athlete in the city as a junior, and was All-American at the quarterbacking position. In High School Dan was excelling in athletics. While playing baseball Dan batted well over .400 . After graduating high school, Dan was drafted in the seventh round by the Kansas City Royals but Dan did not have his eyes set on turning pro yet, well at least not as a baseball player. Dan wanted to attend college and try to fulfill his career as a football player at the University of Pittsburgh. Dan had several colleges such as Michigan State, Clemson, UCLA, and ArizoDan Marino of the Miami Dolphins has had a very successful career on and off of the foot ball field. Dan Marino has led a very interesting life throughout his existence on this planet. Whether it is playing football to appearing in commercials or movies to leading a normal everyday life with his family. Dan Marino has grown to being a role model foe millions and millions of children and adults to look up to. Dan Marino has had a very successful career that has had its ups and downs, but he still manages to be a good all a round guy and more importantly a good sport. Dan Marino was born in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, and he lived with his parents and two younger sisters. Dan came from the same area as Joe Montana, Jim Kelly, and Joe Namath. As a child Dan and his friends were always playing either football or baseball. In both of the two sports, Dan's father had coached. He was the one who had taught Dan how to hold the ball next to his ear and throw without winding up. Dan's father played a huge role in his life, he taught Dan to try hard and

Willy Lomans Evaluation as a Tragic Hero essays

Willy Lomans Evaluation as a Tragic Hero essays In his essay Tragedy And The Common Man, playwright Arthur Miller offers a modern definition for tragedy and a new criteria for the tragic hero. Due to his underlying struggle...attempting to gain his rightful position in his society, Willy is a perfect example of Arthur Millers idea of a tragic hero (Tragedy 228).Willy exemplifies four aspects of Arthur Millers utopian tragic hero; he possesses a tragic flaw, he is degraded by society, his surroundings seem to conspire against him, and despite his hardships he struggles against the world to maintain his dignity. Tragic heroes are often characterized because they bear a tragic flaw. Willys obvious tragic flaw is his pride. He takes pride in everything he does, he even says, Call out the name Willy Loman and see what happens!, just to display to his sons how much pride he takes in his name (Death 62). His lifelong dream was to live the life of a salesman and to die the death of a salesman, and for people to recognize his name everywhere that he traveled (Death 81). He struggles with the reality that he was unsuccessful in completing his dream, and refuses to stop trying. He becomes indignant with his piers when they try to explain that he was a failure, for example when he says, I am not a cripple! (Death 84). He is in a sense crippled by his neglection to see reality and only to believe what he perceives as reality in his mind. His tragic flaw is a major component of his ability to become a tragic hero. Willy Loman is aging and losing his mental stability. This is clear to many of the people in his environment. They begin to conceive him as useless and degrade him to a lower standard in society. Willy refuses to realize that he deserves nothing more than to be considered with the same respect as any regular man. Arthur Miller says that Tragedy is a consequence of a mans total compulsi...

Economic Impact of Imperialism in India Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Economic Impact of Imperialism in India - Essay Example Britain applied the most complex methods to abuse India's vast rich economic reserves. 200 years later of the British control India's economic set up was completely shattered. India in 1947 was a picture of economic underdevelopment with hunger, poverty; low national income etc. Indian agriculture had been cared for by the East India Company. This was chiefly because the major generators of state income were land revenue. Apart from this, the British government wanted to make India as its agricultural base. Since agricultural produce from India could make available cheap raw materials to industrial England. The Company tried a variety of experiments to make the most of the land revenue by falling back to the technique of domination and suppression of the peasants. The system of farming and collecting land revenue became obsolete. Cornwallis introduced the 'Permanent Settlement' which is nothing but a system of collecting land Revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in the year 1793. Following decision makers brought in the Ryotwari system in the Bombay Presidency and it was introduced in most parts of the Madras Presidency. The Mahalwari system showed exceedingly ravaging in the part of Uttar Pradesh. The Zamindary system promoted absentee landlordism. It final ly produced a host of mediators between the state and the cultivator. This complex system of land revenue created a group of moneylenders. These money lenders, in turn, oppressed the poor peasants by lending them at high interests. The poor cultivators could not repay those high interests and finally submitted their lands to those moneylenders. As a result, famine was the common feature of the time. Indian industries bore maximum atrocities under the British domination. The authority and wide-ranging sale of the Indian handicraft in Europe was aimed at the commercial interests of the Company. The Whig governments during the early years of the 18th century enforced heavy duties on Indians textiles imports in Britain. At the end of the Napoleonic wars, the Indian markets were opened to the British for free trade. The British government was now allowed for British machine-made goods to be poured in India duty-free or at minimum cost only. A policy of one-way free trade was also introduced in India which made the Indian handicrafts lose its market. This brought about a great wretchedness to a key section of Indian population.

Critical literature on impact of training and development on employee review

Critical on impact of training and development on employee job performance - Literature review Example Reference 11 Bibliography 12 Introduction The main purpose of the project is to bring forth a critical analysis of the impact of training and development programs on the performance of employees in organisations. Human Resources have played a major role in the economic development of a number of nations. Nations like Britain, Japan and USA have demonstrated immense economic growth in this regard (Brewster, Mayrhofer & Morley, 2004, p.17). Thus, it implies that nations would attain greater and faster economic development on the grounds that they pay greater attention to train its human resources. The project presents the supporting as well as the opposing views on this subject by using relevant literature. Research Question The present research seeks to find the impact of training and development programs on the performance of employees in organisations. The research question is as follows: Do training and development programs improve job performance of employees in organisations? Literature Review Overview of Training In order to maintain a sustainable economic growth as well as an effective performance, the employees’ contribution towards the goals and objectives of the organisation is required to be optimized. Leading writers have emphasised and recognised the importance and requirement of training as the central role played by the management in organisations. Drucker, (1998), have commented that one of the major contributions expected from the managers is to set the vision for the employees and also enhance their ability to perform (Laing, 2009, p.17). The very first step in the designing of a training and development program includes conducting a needs assessment. It includes assisting the new recruits in the workplace with the necessary skills and responsibilities (Kuther & Morgan, 2009, p.103). It is crucial to identify the need in this regard which can be done in several manners. Generally, it is identified as the gap between the present position and which is needed now and also in future (Miller & Osinski, 2002, p.1). The gaps include discrepancies between what the organisation wants and what actually occurs. It is also determined by the difference between the current and the desired performance of employees. The difference between the present and the desired competencies of employees also gives an estimate about the training needs. Several views were collected pertaining to the identification of the key drivers of the training initiatives like the training quality, inputs, extent of interaction and targets over the last few years. The results revealed that the most important determinants were ‘health and safety’, ‘technical changes’ and ‘customer service’. It implies that organisations were primarily found to be using training and development programs for retaining and motivating employees and also for providing the necessary skills and knowledge to the employees to keep themselves at par with the changes in technology and customer service (Miller & Osinski, 2002, p.1). The Training and Development Process In order to ensure that the new and also the experienced employees have the required knowledge and skills for successful performance of their jobs, organisations undertake investments in training programs. Research reveals that the organisations’ productivity bea rs a direct relation with the amount of investments it makes on employees (Bohlander & Snell, 2009, p.306). Recently, Merrill Lynch completely overhauled its training program towards the financial advisors to ensure they would be in a better position to serve their clients. The program included training of â€Å"Monte Carlo analysis†

Indigenous Australians

Indigenous Australians Introduction Indigenous Australians are scattered across the nation. As of 2006, there are around 517,000 indigenous Australians living in the country out of a total population of around 21 million (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006). Because of the variety of climate, vegetation and availability of resources in various parts of Australia, indigenous Australians usually move about in bands for protection and mobility. According to the Encyclopedia Brittanica (1980, p.428) this pattern of nomadic existence basically did not change until the arrival of European settlers beginning in 1788. The subsequent interaction and eventual conflict between the two cultures caused major changes in the indigenous Australians culture. Their social organisations were eroded primarily due to population shifts and the attempt to assimilate them into Western society. The latter include the controversial adoption methods when thousands of indigenous Australian children were taken away from their families to be edu cated in Western style schools during the 19th century. Aborigines were also forced to flee constant European influx into their homelands, marked by clashes during the â€Å"pacification campaign† of the 1880s. (Encyclopedia Brittanica 1980, p.429) Beginning in 1965, the Australian government eventually changed this policy to integration in a multi-ethnic commonwealth. This was in response to protests by human rights activists and the indigenous Australians themselves complaining against centuries-long discrimination by European settlers. From the 1970s onwards, the Australian government had given Aborigines more self determination rights in governing their affairs especially those among living in indigenous communities. However, despite the granting of more rights to indigenous Aborigines, many experts pointed that social problems such as unemployment, alcoholism and suicide rates still remain a primary concern among the indigenous Australians. This is connected to the fact that many indigenous Australians have migrated to cities especially since the 1970s to look for job opportunities Taylor (2006, p3). General concept of kinship Indigenous Australians, either from both inland and coastal areas have three main features characterizing their social organizations and culture: food gathering tribes are small and mostly depend on gathering-hunting activities, b) members must cooperate with each other for survival and c.) religion plays an important role in the lives of indigenous Australians (Encyclopedia Brittanica 1980, p.424). It is generally agreed upon by anthropologists that at the macro-level, the social structure of indigenous Australians, before the coming of Europeans, was based on the following in descending order: tribe, moieties, semi-moieties, sections, sub-sections, and clans. Anthropological studies have concluded that indigenous Australians use this distinction of tribes into sub-groups as a means to govern marriage and social interaction. At the micro-level, indigenous Aborigines classify themselves into local descent groups and hordes which each indigenous Australian identified himself with at the local level. Descent groups are formed by a grouping of individuals claiming patrilineal descent from a common ancestor and practicing exogamous marriages, Hordes, on the other hand, are formed by individuals who gather together for a specific â€Å"business† purpose (Encyclopedia Britannica 1980, 428). Kinship has been defined in various ways by anthropologists. Goudelier, (1998 as cited in Dousett 2001) termed kinship is a â€Å"huge field of social and mental realities stretching between two poles.† In between, Goudelier added, kinship covers abstract and concrete concepts: the abstract aspect covers the various rules and regulations covering interpersonal relationships. As for the concrete aspect, kinship covers the titles used in referring to persons connected to kinship relationships. Meanwhile, Stone (1997 as cited in Dousett 2001) describes kinship as the â€Å"recognition of relationships† between persons according to descent or marriage. Tonkinson (1991 as cited in Dousett 2001) finds kinship as a wide network of relationships, no two of which are related to each other. Dousett (2002) termed kinship as the â€Å"set of norms, rules, institutions and cognitive recognitions† used in referring to inborn or future social relationships of a person and is ad dressed through a specific â€Å"biological idiom† Unlike in the Western concept, kinship among indigenous Australians extends beyond an individuals connection with blood relatives. Tonkinson (1991 cited in Dousett (2001) added that kinship is important in small societies such as those of the indigenous Australians because it defines interpersonal behavior among individuals, compliance of which is essential for a groups survival. Kinship networks also play a role in resource sharing among indigenous Australians. There is an inherent tradition among them that each individual have to share their resources with each other especially in times of need. Schwab and Liddle (1997) pointed out that this is quantified by limitations on when an individual may share or may refuse to share depending on the sharers capacity to give. But both the sharer and the receiver must keep in mind the social implications of their actions on their clans kinship ties, Schwab and Liddle added (1997). Dousett (2002) also mentioned that Aboriginal concept of kinsh ip is different from the Western concept. While the â€Å"Euro-American† concept of kinship is based on direct lineage of an individual to other persons within his community, by contrast indigenous Australians consider kinship also covers relationships based on business transactions. In addition, indigenous Australian kinship serves also as a social control because it also defines how an individual plays a role in society in relation with other members even those who are not of his same lineage. In fact, familial terms (â€Å"father,† â€Å"mother†) can also refer to other older members of the descent group, or clan which an individual may belong. However, kinship terms serves not only as titles for respect but also serves as â€Å"behavioral signals which mark what an individual can or cannot do with regard to personal relationships and expectations of sexual access. This means kinship terms are a vital part in determining the marriage and socialization of ind ividual young members In addition these terms also signify which person can be considered as a spouse or affine (a relative by marriage). Doulett cites Henry Lewis Morgan, an American lawyer-anthropologist, explanation on how indigenous Australian societies kinship systems work. Morgan (1877, 1871 in Doulett 2000) had earlier described in the 19th century that indigenous Australian kinship systems are classificatory. This is because Australian Aborigines consider all persons within a community as related to each other in various ways. Morgan also said that the Australian Aborigines kinship system reflects the initial stages of evolution changes in human society. From the banding together of two or more individuals, this eventually grew into a tribal organization where intermarriage was common, toward the eventual development of a city state. In this evolutionary phase, the Aboriginal kinship system was in the second stage. Socialization, social control: Anthropologists have mentioned that kinship restriction and rules are already visible even during childhood socialization. Aborigine parents train children to socialize with fellow age-group members, and at the same time train them already in the ways of the tribe (e.g. food gathering and hunting.) Young girls went with their mothers to collect food, while young boys were compelled to learn hunting by their own. However, there are certain restrictions in how the children interact with other persons. For instance, brothers and sisters would play separately from each other, while â€Å"mothers-in-law† and â€Å"sons in law† would not play together. (the latter would apply when a young man groomed to marry a female is compelled to live in the camp of his pairs family. ) (Encyclopedia Brittanica 1980, p.426). In terms of authority, leadership is based on the scope of an elders kinship network. Hence, for more complex matters, such as arbitration in disputes, elders of a clan gather together to discuss and reach a consensus over these issues. (Encyclopedia Brittanica 1980, p.427). However, kinship systems do not restrict social mobility when it comes to social classes or strata. While there is a hierarchy where young Aborigines have to pass as they learn various skills, indigenous Australian society as a whole allows individuals to excel in religious and economic affairs primarily through their own efforts and skills. (Encyclopedia Brittanica 1980, p.427). Kinship and marriage Marriage among indigenous Australians cements the role of kinship as more than just linking personal relationships between and among members of a moietie, clan or tribe. It serves also as a kind of social negotiation between one unit with another on virtually all social matters ranging from arranging future marriages between the clans members and transaction of barter trades. Marriage between two individuals also reaffirms ties between groups which already have preordained tasks and obligations even before the marriage is consummated formally. Indigenous Australians have also used marriage to compel the other clan to provide spouses for future marriages. This may explain why the practice in some moiety to compel its members to marry a member from another particular moiety. Houseman (2007) had said in his study that â€Å"Marriage is a product of social constructs.† To elaborate further, marriage is also linking other individuals together by virtue of linking the bride and the groom in a socially sanctified wedding ritual. These individuals, because they are related either to the bride and groom, are by implication, now related also through affinity. This linkage is based on what anthropologists have enunciated as the intertwining of kinship ties and marriage ties. With regard to this remark on marriage, Houseman explored in his study how indigenous Australians construct and maintain marriage networks as a form of promoting social stability among themselves. In his study, Houseman theorized that indigenous Australians practice marriage as a confluence of various social and personal factors and that marriages are interlinked through a circular pattern from core marriages to outer marriages. He also distinguishes some marriage determinants, which include: â€Å"deliminated marriage network,† â€Å"core of deliminated marriage network,† â€Å"matrimonial community,† and â€Å"connobium.† Houseman (2007) defines deliminated marriage network as a web of relationships extracted from a larger grouping and is formed by the confluence of tribe-and clan-based perspectives on marriage. This means that from a particular community or clan, there is a specific network from which all persons related to the couple to be married are connected in some way. On the other hand, â€Å"core of deliminated marriage networks comprises of genealogical circuits of the â€Å"reconnected marriage,† meaning these are lineages among individuals which have been re-linked with the marriage of two individual Aborigines. The determinant â€Å"matrimonial community pertains to the set of non- intermarrying individuals who are related to each other through core marriages. Springing from this concept is the connobium which refers to the connection of non-intermarrying individuals to each other through multiple core marriages. However, Aboriginal moieties and clans do not intermarry just because they have to maintain close ties with each other Houseman (2007). Evidence suggested by previous research suggest that moieties and clans intermarry with other tribal sub-units because that these groups can be relied upon in maintaining the land, guarding it from intrusion by other groups, are able to share knowledge about the land, and that they can perform certain rituals according to specific occasions. Kinship after colonization; contemporary times The onslaught of modern ideas due to colonization and Westernization has wrought major changes in indigenous Australians culture. Experts noted that the destruction or even at least alteration of kinship networks has left many individual Aborigines grappling with culture shock Those who may not have been able to adjust well to the realities of modern Australian life have resorted to alcoholism, and suicide as desperate attempts to escape their problems, studies have shown. Studies by Daly and Smith (1997) and Hunter and Gray(1999) cited figures showing that indigenous Australians suffer higher rates of poverty and at the lower end of the income gap with non-Aboriginal Australians even as recent as the 1990s. One factor which affected the kinship systems of Australian indigenous peoples is the fact that many if not most of them already been intermixed with European blood. In addition they may have been heavily influenced by the Western culture that they encounter in the cities. As mentioned early in this essay, beginning in the 19th century many Aborigines have either moved from their homelands in search of jobs or were forced to flee European incursion into their lands. In fact until the 1990s, many Australian cities saw continued influx of indigenous Australians even as these cities also reported net migration losses.(Taylor, 2006 p.63) Hence many of the indigenous Australians were either the products of interracial marriage or had intermarried into European families (as in the case of African-Americans in the United States during the slave trade-era.). In addition as the indigenous Australians moved in the cities they had to deal with a different culture system where the emphasis is on individual excellence. But since they are away from their ancestral lands, they also lacked support systems, both in terms of providing material and emotional assistance, whenever they encounter problems in finding jobs, places to live. etc. Another more profound determinant in the alteration of Aborigine social systems is the compelled enrollment of Aborigine children to schools (especially the ones who were adopted by White families). Because the curriculum of these schools are centered on European culture, many Aborigine children tend to be assimilated by intensely studying European-style subjects and the English language. As a result, they have to uproot themselves from the traditional way of life and culture that they had experienced in their tribes. A Portrait of Life and Self Destruction Layton (2007) revealed many aspects on modern-day problems at the end of the 20th century in his review of the book Aboriginal Suicide is Different: A Portrait of Life and Self Destruction. While reviewing the 2005 book by Colin Tatz, Layton discussed some factors behind Aborigines suicides even though medical research concluded that there were no considerable patterns of mental illnesses among them distinctive from Australias general population. Layton added that overall rates for unemployment, drug abuse, and alcoholism were similar for both Aboriginal and non Aboriginal populations, so this would not factor likely as the root cause behind the suicide rates among Aborigines. He said that this may be explained by the fact that during the 1980s, the social organization of many Aboriginal tribes and clans had been destroyed by the intrusion of modern culture and also by government policies of allowing Aborigines to depend on state sponsored welfare. Layton, quoting Tatz as suggesting that Aborigines be given more literacy training, â€Å"personal empowerment,† highlighting positive roles of Aborigines in community development etc . Meanwhile Wooten (2002, p. 78) believed that the reason behind continued poverty among Aborigines is that the policy of self-determination, enunciated in the 1980s, has only worsened the dependency of many indigenous Australians on the federal and state governments. He recommends that the government instead concentrate on training Aborigines in adjusting to the realities and problems of modern living. To explain his point, Wooten used the metaphor of prison camp to highlight Australias situation on Aborigines According to the anthropology professor, while the prisoners were supposed to have been freed since they federal government grant self determination to them in the 1980s, the policy may have proved to be a motivation for many â€Å"prisoners (ie Aborigines) to remain inside the â€Å"prison.† What he suggests is that he government train the Aborigines to eventually get out of the â€Å"prison.† In addition, he commented that organizations founded by the government and private sector to help alleviate the widespread poverty among Aborigines should a.) be judged according to their performance and not because no indigenous Australians were reportedly sitting inside; while b) their shortcomings in supporting the indigenous Australians should not be overseen With renewed attempts among many Aborigines to reclaim their heritage, aside from seeking damages due to the â€Å"assimilation† policy,† there also arises the need for Aborigines to once again study their clan or tribes kinship systems. Doulet (2002) also mentioned that there is a need for indigenous Australians to know more about the kinship systems of their particular tribe or clan (whatever may be the case), especially if they want to regain ancestral land which were seized by European settlers during the 19th century. This is because modern legal jurisprudence demands that claimants must know about the size and legal details of the property in dispute for them to be able to back up their claims stronger. Based from the findings of these three anthropology experts, this writer opines that a) European colonisation and the subsequent implementation of the â€Å"assimilation† policy did considerably damage the indigenous Australians kinship systems Because each tribes kinship system had a relatively small scope covering only certain number of moieties, groups, clans, these were not able to withstand changes wrought by the arrival of the Europeans: population losses, expulsion from ancestral lands, introduction of new kinds of work, Europeanization. As we have seen, the indigenous Australians kinship system relies mainly on personalistic ties between clans, as shown in the use of marriage to bind two separate groups. On the other hand, it is to the credit of the Australian government that major policy changes have been made with regard to indigenous Australians. From the 1965 decree allowing Aborigines to choose if they want to be assimilated to the 1980s order giving self determination among them until the present day system of training them for capacity development through government funded organizations, the federal and state governments have been trying to make up for two centuries of racial discrimination. This writer agrees, however, that the Aborigines themselves must also help themselves in integrating into Australian society. They may actively participate in the abovementioned training programs in order to develop their skills. Or they eventually join the organisations running those programs so that they can have a greater voice in decision-making processes which concern their welfare. But it is important also that the Aborigines, especially the educated ones, should revisit the kinship networks of their clans to see if they can still be readjusted in line with contemporary developments. This is because while the indigenous Australians are, theoretically, integrated into a multi-ethnic society, still they have a unique culture which they cannot discard in the name of cosmopolitanism. Conclusion This essay has shown the various factors influencing indigenous Australians kinship systems, how the latter affect the social and economic aspects of daily living and how these has changed in the past centuries This essay has also pointed out that both the federal government and the indigenous Australians play important roles in mitigating damages caused by colonisation on indigenous Australian kinship networks. Primary References: 1.Book 1980 Australian Aboriginal Cultures chapter in Encyclopedia Brittanica, pp.424-429 2.Journals Layton, R., 2007. Aboriginal Suicide is Different: A Portrait of Life and Self Destruction. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol.13. Houseman, M.1997. Marriage Networks among Australian Aboriginal Populations Australian Aboriginal Studies, vol.1997. Wooten H. 2002. Indigenous Futures: Choices and Development for Aboriginer and Islander Australian Aboriginal Studies, vol. 2002, p.78. Websites Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2009 Population Distribution, Aboriginal and Torres Straits Islanders Australians [Online] Available at: http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[emailprotected]/ProductsbyCatalogue/14E7A4A075D53A6CCA2569450007E46C?OpenDocument [Accessed 25 July 2009]. Daly, A. Smith, D 1997 Indigenous sole parents: Invisible and disadvantaged [Online] Available at: http://www.anu.edu.au/caepr/Publications/DP/1997DP134.php [Accessed 26 July 2009]. Dousset, L. 2002 Introduction to Australian Indigenous Social Organizations (Hitting the headlines article). [Online] Available at: http://www.ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/kinship2.php[Accessed 25 July 2009]. 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